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Period 8 Notes

Apr 15, 202423 min read

Overview

Terms and Concepts

George Kennan Long Telegram The George Kennan Long Telegram or Long Telegram was a diplomatic message sent by George F. Kennan in 1946. It was sent during rising tensions between the United States and Soviet Union and provided a 5,000 word analysis of the Soviet Union’s foreign policy and intentions.

The Long Telegram shaped United States foreign policy towards the Soviet Union during the Cold War. It influenced strategies like containment and intervention.

Truman Doctrine The Truman Doctrine declared the United States would provide political, military, and economic assistance to all democratic nations.

The Truman Doctrine influenced American foreign policy to intervene in proxy wars through political, military, and economical means. It was the core strategy to pursue the containment of communism.

Marshall Plan The Economic Recovery Act of 1948, or Marshall Plan, signed in 1948, provided economic assistance to restore the economy and infrastructure of postwar Europe. A proposal by Secretary of State George Marshall, the plan appropriated $13.3 billion for European policy.

The Marshall Plan helped rebuild Western Europe and cemented American influence in damaged democratic countries. The plan only applied to democratic European countries because of Soviet refusal to accept American aid.

GI Bill 1944 (Servicemen’s Readjustment Act) The Servicemen’s Readjustment Act or G.I Bill provided American WWII veterans with financial assistance for education, unemployment, and housing. It reintegrated veterans back into the United States.

The GI Bill of Rights, was paramount in helping veterans readjust to civilian life. The act provided the necessary funds to progress in civilian society and helped approximately 8 million veterans.

Truman Executive Order 9981 Executive Order 9981 was signed by President Truman in 1948 and banned segregation in the American Armed Forces. The executive order helped improve civil rights for the over one million African Americans within the armed forces.

Despite considerable resistance to Executive Order 9981 from the military, nearly all of the military was integrated by the end of the Korean War. It was a major progression in strengthening civil rights.

Sun Belt The Sun Belt is a region in the United States that stretches across the Southeast and Southwest. The region received substantial growth after WWII and became a concentration of modern industries.

The Sun Belt offered lower taxes and better job opportunities for Americans, creating an industrial boom for states in the South. The region received massive support by the federal government to produce weapons and military bases, redistributing wealth from the North to the South.

Red Scare The Red Scare was a national fear of leftist movements, especially communism. The first Red Scare from 1917 to 1920 occurred in response to the Russian Revolution and subsequent communist revolutions.

The second Red Scare, also known as McCarthyism, was a communist witch hunt from 1947 to 1957. In both cases, the United States enacted measures to crack down on communism. The Red Scares marked the federal policy to outlaw communism in the United States. Thousands of federal employees were terminated for being suspected as “Un-American”, creating an atmosphere of fear and paranoia.

NATO The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) or North Atlantic Alliance is an international military alliance established after WWII. It was created against the Soviet Union as a mutual-defense treaty should there be a communist invasion.

NATO increased tensions between Western democracies and Soviet-aligned countries. The Soviet Union responded with the Warsaw Pact, a collection of Soviet satellite states, as the Eastern measure against a Western invasion.

OPEC The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a co-operative organization between leading oil-producing countries to influence the global oil market and maximize profit.

OPEC rose to prominence in the international oil market, leveraging its economic value for its member countries. It became a major competitor to the usually Anglo dominated oil market majority of oil production belongs to the organization.

McCarthyism McCarthyism or the Second Red Scare was a political period of paranoia and persecution against communism in the United States during the late 1940s and late 1950s. It was named after the US Senator Joseph McCarthy who spearheaded the campaign but gradually lost public credibility after his accusations were found to be false.

McCarthyism enveloped the US in a period of paranoia and fear. Thousands of federal employees and politicians were arrested on accusations of being communists. It politically divided the country and labeled any troublesome government workers as communists to be fired.

House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) The House Committee on Un-American Activities (HCUA), also known as the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), was an investigative organization in the United States to investigate disloyalty in Americans. The committee’s anti-communist activities tied heavily to McCarthyism and played a key role in cracking down on supposed communists.

The HUAC was a key component in the paranoia and fear during the Second Red Scare. Its investigations into influential Americans led many people to hide from public view in fear of getting arrested for alleged communism.

Space Race The Space Race was a competition between the United States and Soviet Union to establish a significant presence in space. The race saw both nations pioneer several scientific advancements in space flight including the first satellites and the first person on the moon.

The Space Race was a major factor in the increased investment in science and technology by both rivals. The United States saw a period of technological innovation as NASA quickly rushed to launch Apollo 11 to send the first person to the moon. The end of the Space Race solidified the United States as the pioneer of major scientific innovations.

Sputnik Sputnik 1 was the first satellite launched into space by the Soviet Union in 1957. The launch was a major accomplishment by the Soviet Union and set their space program ahead of the United States. The success of Sputnik triggered a crisis in America and began the Space Race.

The flying start of the Soviet Union generated fear among Western nations. The United States quickly needed to jumpstart their space program to compete against the Soviets. As a result, the federal government invested heavily into NASA and education regarding science and technology.

Rosenberg Case Julius Rosenberg and Ethel Rosenberg were an American couple convicted of spying for the Soviet Union, including providing top-secret information about radar, sonar, jet propulsion, and nuclear weapons. They were executed by the federal government in 1953, becoming the first Americans to be executed for charges of communism.

The Rosenberg Case was the result of mass paranoia within the United States against communism. Although the crimes held ground, the trial and execution was perceived by many Americans as too harsh. Protests erupted to prevent the couple’s execution and claims were made about antisemitism. However, these charges were mainly believed abroad in European countries rather than the United States.

Warsaw Pact The Warsaw Pact, formally the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance, was a defensive pact between the Soviet Union and other Eastern bloc communist countries. The Soviet-dominated alliance saw military and economic cooperation between communist countries and provided a counterbalance to NATO.

The Warsaw Pact highlighted tensions between the United States and Soviet Union during the Cold War. The alliance cemented the Soviet Union as the dominant force in Eastern Europe and helped projected international power in the support of communism.

Eisenhower Doctrine The Eisenhower Doctrine was an American policy by President Eisenhower. The doctrine declared that a country could request American assistance if threatened by armed aggression from another state. However, it primarily acted as the American bulwark against international communism, especially with a series of crises within the Middle East.

The Eisenhower Doctrine was a major component to American foreign policy in the Middle East. The Soviet Union had begun intervening in Middle Eastern affairs, creating fear among American politicians. Under the new doctrine, America committed to protecting American interests in the Middle East.

Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) and Brinkmanship Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) and brinkmanship are tied to the state of affairs during the Cold War, especially during the Cuban Missile Crisis. The United States and Soviet Union had thousands of nuclear weapons capable of destroying each other at a moment’s notice. To effectively leverage their position, both nations attempted to push situations towards the brink of active conflict to force the opponent to back down and make concessions.

Although Mutually Assured Destruction deterred a direct invasion, with brinkmanship, the chance of a nuclear exchange increased dramatically. The United States and Soviet Union pushed their opponents in an effort to force the other to back down but nearly caused nuclear destruction, especially during the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Domino Theory The Domino Theory was the American idea that a communist takeover in one country would quickly lead to communist revolutions in neighboring states, each falling like dominos until it reached the United States.

The Domino Theory was the driving force of American foreign policy during the Cold War. American intervention in Korea, Vietnam, and Afghanistan could be attributed as attempts to prevent the Domino Theory by preventing communist takeover at its source. The strategy also increased tensions between the United States and Soviet Union as American forces constantly attempted to undermine the Soviets.

Tet Offensive The Tet Offensive was a major escalation and one of the largest military campaigns of the Vietnam War. The Viet Cong (VC) launched a surprise attack against American forces and their allies throughout South Vietnam in an attempt to trigger political instability to collapse the South Vietnamese government.

The Tet Offensive marked the end of the Vietnam War and the victory of the VC. Although the United States and South Vietnamese forces successfully fended off a majority of communist forces, the political instability created by the attack was substantial. Growing anti-war sentiment caused the eventual withdrawal of American forces and a massive demoralization for the South Vietnamese military, leading to the communist reunification of Vietnam.

My Lai The My Lai Massacre was a war crime committed by American forces during the Vietnam War in 1968. Hundreds of civilians were executed by US soldiers, including men, women, children, and infants. It is the largest publicized massacre of civilians by US forces in the 20th century. Twenty-six soldiers were charged but only one platoon leader was convicted. He was given a life sentence but served three and a half years under house arrest.

The My Lai massacre triggered international outrage and opposition to American intervention in the Vietnam War. Domestic anti-war sentiment grew dramatically, prompting the eventual withdrawal of American forces in Vietnam.

Pentagon Papers The History of U.S. Decision-Making in Vietnam, 1945-1968, or the Pentagon Papers, is a chronicle of United States involvement in Vietnam from 1945 to 1968. It was released and brought to attention in 1971. The papers were said to demonstrate the lies and malpractice of Lyndon B. Johnson’s administration.

The Pentagon Papers revealed American expansion of bombing in Cambodia and Laos, coastal raids on North Vietnam, and Marine Corps attacks none of which were reported by American media. However, the most critical revelation was the discovery that four administrations (Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson) had misled the public regarding their intentions. The scandal massively discredited the American government and influenced anti-government sentiment.

Paris Accords 1973 The Paris Peace Accords, officially the Agreement on Ending the War and Restoring Peace in Viet Nam, was signed in 1973 to establish peace in Vietnam and end the Vietnam War. The agreement was signed by Vietnamese on both sides and American diplomats. The negotiations began in 1968 and finished after various lengthy delays. The peace was broken by the 1975 Spring Offensive by North Vietnam that capitulated South Vietnam and reunited the country under communism.

The Paris Peace Accords marked the final withdrawal of the United States in Vietnam and humiliated the American military. It displayed the shortcomings of American military strategy and the success of communist guerrillas. In addition, it demonstrated the errors of the Domino Theory as communism failed to spread further than Cambodia and Laos despite the communist takeover of Vietnam

War on Poverty The War on Poverty was the unofficial name for the legislation introduced by President Lyndon B. Johnson to create a federal response to national poverty. The United States Congress passed the Economic Opportunity Act which established forty programs aimed to eliminate poverty. The policy was part of President Johnson’s Great Society.

The results of the War on Poverty are controversial. Critics claimed the program made poor people too dependent on federal aid while others countered that the War on Poverty was limited by American involvement in Vietnam. However, during this period, poverty did decline, albeit possibly due to other sources.

Civil Rights Act of 1964 The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was enacted in 1964 and marked a major progression of civil rights and labor laws in the United States. It outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, and national origin and prohibited unequal application of voter registration, racial segregation in schools, and employment discrimination. Initially, the act held little ground but was quickly supplemented during later years.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 massively improved equality on a national scale. However, the bill divided American politics and risked losing Southern support to the Democratic Party. In addition, white business owners disputed the bill and claimed that Congress did not have constitutional authority to ban segregation.

Immigration Act of 1965 The Immigration Act of 1965, Hart-Celler Act, or 1965 Immigration Act, was signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson abolished American discrimination against Southern and Eastern Europeans as well as Asians and other non-Western and Northern European ethnicities in immigration policy. The act was a break from and restructured American immigration policy away from previous attempts to control immigration by ethnicity.

The 1965 Immigration Act significantly shifted the ethnic composition of immigrants with increased numbers from Asia, Africa, the West Indies, and non-US Americans. However, it also led to rising numbers of undocumented immigrants in the US after 1965, especially in the Southwest.

Head Start The Head Start Program, launched in 1965 with the United States Department of Health and Human Services, provided early childhood education, health, nutrition, and parent involvement services to low-income children and families. The program was designed to create stable family relationships and foster children’s well-being. It was a part of President Lyndon B. Johnson’s Great Society.

The Head Start Program significantly boosted the incomes and years of education for attending students. It helped popularize President Johnson’s Great Society and drew attention to American educational reform.

Malcolm X Malcolm X was a prominent Muslim civil rights activist and spokesman for the Nation of Islam until 1964. A controversial figure accused of preaching racism and violence, he is also a widely celebrated figure within African American and Muslim American communities for his pursuit of racial justice. On February 21, 1965, he was assassinated in New York City.

Malcolm X is described as one of the greatest and most influential African Americans in history. He helped raise the self-esteem of Black Americans and reconnected them with their African heritage. He is also responsible for spreading Islam in the Black community and many African Americans felt that Malcolm X articulated their complaints concerning inequality better than the mainstream civil rights movement.

Voting Rights Act 1965 The Voting Rights Act of 1965 prohibited racial discrimination in voting. Signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson during the height of the civil rights movement, it was designed to enforce voting rights protected by the 14th and 15th amendments. The act is considered to be one of the most effective pieces of federal civil rights legislation ever enacted in the United States.

The Voting Rights Act helped a quarter of a million new Black voters register by the end of 1965. By the end of 1966, only four out of 13 southern states had fewer than 50 percent of African Americans registered to vote. The act immediately decreased racial discrimination in voting.

Equal Rights Amendment The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) was a proposed amendment in 1923 that would prohibit sex discrimination. It would guarantee equal legal rights for all American citizens regardless of sex, ending legal distinctions between men and women in matters of divorce, property, employment, etc. However, opponents argued it would remove protections that women needed.

The ERA continued to gain attention throughout the 20th century and was passed by the Senate in 1950 and 1953 with a provision known as “the Hayden rider,” an added clause that would keep special protections for women. However, it would continue to be disputed by the House. Over several decades, presidential administrations voiced their opinions on the amendment with it partially committed to legislation with the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

Stonewall Riots The Stonewall Riots, Stonewall Uprising, Stonewall Rebellion, or Stonewall, were a series of protests by members of the LGBTQ community in response to a police raid at the Stonewall Inn in the Greenwich Village neighborhood in New York City. Patrons of the Stonewall, other Village lesbian and gay bars, trans activists, and unhoused LGBT individuals fought back when police became violent. Within weeks, Village residents organized into activist groups demanding an end to discrimination against homosexuality.

The Stonewall Riots are considered the origin of the gay liberation movement, however, there was already the emergence of a gay liberation movement in New York at the time of the riots. Within two years of the Stonewall riots, there were gay rights groups in every major American city, as well as in Canada, Australia, and Western Europe.

American Indian Movement The American Indian Movement (AIM) is an American Indian movement founded in 1968 and initially centered in urban areas to address systemic issues of poverty, discrimination, and police brutality against American Indians. AIM would widen its focus to many Indigenous Tribal issues that American Indian groups have faced, including treaty rights, high rates of unemployment, lack of American Indian subjects in education, and the preservation of Indigenous cultures.

The American Indian Movement helped advocate for Indigenous rights on a global scale. It was an active and highly effective element in the broader push for civil rights in the 1960s and 1970s, repeatedly extracting concessions by the federal government to alter the policy towards Native Americans.

Woodstock Woodstock Music and Art Fair, or Woodstock, was a music festival held from August 15 to 18, 1969. The festival is regarded as a pivotal moment in popular music history, especially towards the silent and baby boomer generations. It attracted over 400,000 attendees and was noticeably underprepared for the number of occupants.

Woodstock was an escape for Americans during the Vietnam War and Civil Rights movement and a chance to express music and community while spreading a message of unity and peace. Many popular musicians performed at the festival, helping inspire a new age of music and counterculture.

Student Free Speech Movement The Free Speech Movement (FSM) was a massive student protest between the 1964-1965 academic year at the University of California, Berkeley. Thousands of students participated in the first mass act of civil disobedience on an American college campus in the 1960s. Students demanded the university administration lift the ban on campus political activities and acknowledge the student’s rights to free speech and academic freedom.

The FSM successfully caused university officials to back down, and by 1965, the new acting chancellor established provisional rules for political activity on the Berkeley campus. The movement massively contributed to the civil liberties movement in the 1960s and began a series of student activism.

1968 Democratic Convention in Chicago The 1968 Democratic National Convention Protests were a series of protests against American involvement in the Vietnam War during the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, Illinois. The protests lasted seven days, from August 23 to August 29. Chicago authorities attempted to prevent the protests but were unsuccessful, causing unprecedented levels of police brutality by the Chicago police.

American national news media heavily publicized the brutality of Chicago police during the Democratic National Convention Protests. Surprisingly, the general public sympathized with the police and not the demonstrators. The protests and ensuing trials highlighted the national divide caused by the Vietnam War and cultural shifts.

Roe v. Wade Roe v. Wade (1973) was a US Supreme Court decision that ruled the Constitution protected a right to have an abortion. The ruling struck down many abortion laws and caused an ongoing debate about the legality of abortion. The Supreme Court’s decision was heavily controversial and criticized, with some calling the decision a form of judicial activism. In June 2022, the Supreme Court overruled the result of Roe v. Wade.

Political opinions split following Roe v. Wade. Several federal bills and state laws were passed after the decision to define the legal extent of abortion. The case became a part of a long line of decisions regarding personal liberty and privacy, resulting in a foundation for individual liberty cases concerning privacy.

Silent Spring (1962) Silent Spring is an environmental science book by Rachel Carson published in 1962. The book documented the environmental harm caused by a type of pesticide used by soldiers during WW2. Carson accused the industrial sector of spreading disinformation regarding chemicals and pesticides. The book brought environmental concerns to the American public but was met with fierce opposition by chemical companies.

Silent Spring swayed public opinion and led to a reformation of US pesticide policy, a nationwide ban on DDT for agricultural uses, and an environmental movement. It became a rallying point for a new social movement in the 1960s, altering the American mindset towards reducing pollution and strengthening regulations to protect the environment. It helped inspired the Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act.

Clean Air Act (1970) The Clean Air Act (CAA) is the primary federal air quality law designed to reduce and regulate air pollution nationwide. In 1970, Congress greatly expanded the CAA. The act is administered by the US Environmental Protection Agency in coordination with state, local, and tribal governments. After the implementation of the CAA, American air quality significantly improved, saving trillions of dollars and thousands of lives every year.

The Clean Air Act along with the Clean Water Act overwhelmingly improved air quality in an unprecedented reform of American policy. It marked a shift towards environmental protection and a change in the American mindset.

Earth Day (1970) Earth Day is an annual event to support environmental protection. It was first held in 1970 and includes a wide range of international events. After the publication of Rachel Carson’s book, Silent Spring, the shift in American mindset towards environmental protection manifested into Earth Day.

Earth Day is a landmark change in the American shift towards environmental protection. It greatly improved international cooperation to reduce pollution and protect natural resources.

Clean Water Act (1972) The Clean Water Act (CWA) is the primary regulation governing water pollution. It was designed to maintain the integrity of the nation’s waters through treatment works like wastewater treatment and maintaining the integrity of wetlands. It is one of America’s most influential environmental laws and coordinates with state governments to implement water regulations.

The passage of the Clean Water Act dramatically improved the nation’s waters and decreased water pollution. It is among many pieces of legislation, like the Clean Air Act, to improve the environment, marking the shift of American mindset towards protecting the environment.

Three Mile Island nuclear disaster (1979) The Three Mile Island Accident was a nuclear meltdown of the Three Mile Island Generating Station near the capital city of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. The meltdown began in 1979 and released radioactive gases into the environment, culminating in the worst accident of American nuclear energy. The incident increased the decline to build new reactors.

After the Three Mile Island Accident, anti-nuclear energy sentiment grew significantly. Anti-nuclear activists expressed worries about regional health effects, and American uncertainty declined further creation of nuclear power plants.

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